The Last Frontiers of India

Notes

Essentials

Visas
Most nationals including UK, EU and US visitors require a visa for entry to India. These must be obtained in advance, and we recommend that you check with your nearest embassy for the most up to date details.

Airport Tax
No departure tax currently applies.

Health and Immunisations
As with travel to most parts of Asia, we strongly recommend that you contact your doctor’s surgery or a specialist travel clinic for up-to-date information, advice and the necessary vaccinations. For a visit of less than one month, almost certainly you will be advised to have immunisations against the following: Diphtheria and Tetanus, Hepatitis A, Typhoid, Meningitis. The use of a DEET-containing insect repellent is highly recommended.

Insurance

• What should my travel insurance policy cover?
• medical and health cover for an injury or sudden illness abroad
• 24 hour emergency service and assistance
• personal liability cover in case you’re sued for causing injury or damaging property
• lost and stolen possessions cover
• cancellation and curtailment (cutting short your trip) cover
• Extra cover for activities that are commonly excluded from standard policies, such as certain sports

The policy should cover the whole time that you are away.

Your policy may also have:

• personal accident cover
• legal expenses cover

Common travel insurance policy exclusions
Always check the conditions and exclusions of your policy:

• most policies will not cover drink or drug-related incidents

You must take reasonable care of your possessions or your policy will not cover you.

Practical information

Local Currency
The currency is the rupee, and it is not possible to purchase them overseas. For current exchange rates visit www.xe.com.

Where currency can be exchanged
Currency can be exchanged at a number of places, including banks, exchange booths and hotels. India is well equipped with ATMs, although less so in smaller towns than in larger cities. Please note that it is only possible to convert excess rupees back into foreign currency upon production of your original exchange documents. If brining cash, we recommend that you bring either pound sterling or US dollars.

Credit cards and travellers cheques
Credit cards are generally only accepted in the more expensive shops and restaurants. Traveller’s cheques are fairly easy to exchange, although less places offer this service.

Best time to go
As India covers such a vast area, it experiences a fair amount of variation in seasons. Roughly speaking, it can be divided into three seasons. The coolest season is from October to April (north India) and November to March (south India) – it is still quite warm in the daytime though. The hot season, just before the monsoon, is from April to June, and it can get quite uncomfortable in these months. The monsoon falls from July to September (North) and July to October (south). During this time India experiences high levels of rainfall. In the cooler season in the north, especially in the mountains, it can get quite cold at night so you should bear this in mind when packing.

Main Language
India is home to a number of languages, but its official language is Hindi. However many regions will have their own language – in Gujarat the language is Gujarati, while in the north eastern hill states a wide variety of dialects are spoken, reflecting the ethnic diversity of the area.

Main Religion
India’s main religion is Hinduism, but there are sizeable Moslem, Buddhist, Jain, and Sikh populations as well.

Food and drink
Indian cuisine is among the best in the world, with a huge variety of dishes that vary from region to region. Although often spicy, this is not always the case and many dishes are rather mild. Common meat dishes (meat will be either mutton, chicken or pork - never beef) include rogan josh (stew with onions and tomatoes), tandoori (meat marinated in yoghurt and spices and cooked in a clay oven) and biriyani (flavoured rice with chicken or mutton). Common vegetarian dishes include palak paneer (spinach and cottage cheese), aloo gobi (potato and cauliflower), Chana masala (chickpeas in a spice mix), raita (yoghurt mixed with vegetables) and boondi raita (balls of gram flour batter fried and soaked in yoghurt). You will also find several different kinds of bread such as whole wheat roti or chapatti, tandoor baked nan bread and batura, a leavened deep-fried bread.

Indian tea, known as chai, is rather different to western tea with much more milk and sugar in it, often flavoured with cardamoms. Alcohol is available in India although not as freely as it is in Europe or the United States.
If you have any special dietary requirements you must notify us at the time of booking. While we will make every effort to cater for you, we cannot guarantee that this will be possible.

Food in India ranges in price – you can eat as cheaply as $0.50 in a local restaurant or pay up to $20 in something more elaborate. Most people probably spend about $4-7 on a meal.
A bottle of water will set you back around $0.50 while a beer costs around $2-3 for a large bottle.

Transport
Our tours in India will either use private cars or private buses.

Flights included in your tour are made with one of the domestic Indian airlines, which are of a high standard. A light snack and drinks are usually included. In the event of flight delays or cancellations we will attempt to make alternative arrangements so as to keep the tour operating as close to the original itinerary as possible.

Local conditions
Travelling in the destinations that we visit requires a good deal of understanding that often standards simply won’t be as they are at home. While we aim to make your trip as comfortable as possible, please be aware that we are often visiting remote or less developed regions that may have little infrastructure. While we aim to make your trip run as smoothly as possible there may be times when we need to ask for your patience while we rectify any problems.

What to take with you

First Aid Kit
The first thing on your list should be a first aid kit. Whilst there is no undue cause for alarm, travellers are best advised to travel well-prepared: adequately immunized, with sufficient supplies of prescription drugs, along with a medical kit.

Clothing
When it comes to clothing it is usually recommended that lighter clothes are worn through the day, and warmer ones at night. A hat is also advised to be worn through the day to protect from the sun, along with at least one piece of waterproof clothing for any days that the weather may be wet or windy.

You should bear in mind that India tends to have a conservative attitude towards dress. Women, and also to a certain extent men, will find that the way they dress will often determine the degree of respect they receive from both men and women.

Footwear
Footwear is a main priority on this tour. Comfortable walking shoes/boots are recommended.

Luggage
Your luggage should not exceed 20kgs (44lbs). One large suitcase/rucksack, and one small hand luggage rucksack is acceptable.

Other
Suncream/sunblock is a must. Insect repellent, including a bite spray will also be useful to have.

Fitness
This tour does not require any special degree of fitness but you will find it more enjoyable if you are reasonably fit.

Cultural and environmental guidelines
In some parts of India water is in extremely short supply. Poor monsoons over the past few years have led to major water shortages and you may notice rivers and lakes which are completely dry. Please bear this in mind when washing and showering and try to limit your water usage as much as possible.

Travellers should respect that religion is an inherent part of Indian life. We encourage travellers to experience religious festivals and visit temples and shrines but ask that you follow religious rules such as removing your shoes and refraining from taking photographs at certain sites. At Hindu temples, non-Hindus are not usually permitted to enter the inner sanctum – look for signs or ask for advice.

You are likely to come across beggars while on tour in India. Every traveller has different perspectives on this and ultimately the choice is up to you. Many sources recommend that you watch to see if local people give, and then follow their lead with genuine beggars. We do not recommend giving money, sweets, pens etc to children as this can encourage a begging mentality and can lead to children choosing to beg rather than go to school.

Haggling is a way of life in India when making many purchases, especially with tourist souvenirs. Usually, but not always, the vendor will start with a price that is higher than they are prepared to accept, and the buyer is expected to haggle. There are no hard and fast rules with this – some vendors may initially quote a vastly overinflated price, others may start with a price close to the true value, while others may just present you with one price and not be prepared to discuss it. Although many tourists may feel uncomfortable with this, it’s important to remember that this is best entered into in a relaxed manner. Once you have agreed upon a price, it is extremely bad form to then not pay this. Please also bear in mind that a small amount of money to you can be a relatively large amount for the vendor, and that it is not necessarily best practice to ‘beat the vendor down’ to the lowest possible price. Remember that they also have a living to make.

Please make sure that you take any rubbish back to the hotels with you where it can be properly disposed of – this includes cigarette butts as well.

Please do not buy any products made from endangered species – this is not sustainable and hastens the species’ decline.

Photography
You should always ask permission before taking anyone's photograph and respect their decision if they say no. In more remote areas women and older people often do not want to be photographed. Some people may also ask for some money – sometimes a little, sometimes a lot - in return for a photo. Taking photos of military installations, state buildings, and airports can lead to problems with local authorities. If you are unsure about whether it is acceptable to take a photo, please ask your tour leader or guide.

Tipping
Tipping is common practise in India. If your local guide has been helpful then you could think about tipping. This amount can obviously be left to you. When tipping a driver, a guide or hotel staff a few dollars will always be gratefully received.

Foreign Office Advice
We constantly monitor the advice posted by the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO). In particular we will always advise clients of any travel warnings. At present there are no warnings against travel to the areas of India that we visit. Please feel free to contact us should you have any specific concerns or would like to know in detail what measures are being taken to ensure visits remain trouble free and without incident.

It should be noted that this information applies to British citizens. Other nationals are asked to check the current position of their respective government.

Further Information

Public Holidays in India:

1 Jan New Year’s Day
26 Jan Republic Day
15 Aug Independence Day
2 Oct Mahatma Gandhi’s Birthday
25 Dec Christmas Day

In addition to these national holidays there are a number of religious festivals, the key ones of which are:

Holi (Hindu Spring Festival) – Feb / March
Diwali (Hindu New Year) – Oct / Nov
Eid (end of Ramadan) – varies annually

Dates are for guidance only and may vary year to year

Electrical Supply
230-240 volts. Plugs are usually of the European two round pin variety.

Recommended Reading

India – The Rough Guide
David Abram

North East India – Lonely Planet
Joe Bindloss, Lindsay Brown, Mark Elliott and Paul Harding

India: A Million Mutinies Now
VS Naipaul

The Age of Kali
William Dalrymple

In Spite of the Gods
Edward Luce

No Full Stops in India
Mark Tully

IMPORTANT NOTES – PLEASE READ

Please note that the information provided is correct at the time of writing but may change. It is intended as a guide only. Further information regarding vaccinations and travel health visit www.fitfortravel.scot.nhs.uk or contact your local healthcare provider.

In addition we strongly advise you to check the information and any travel advice provided by your government. For British citizens you should visit the Foreign Office website www.fco.gov.uk.

Furthermore, you should be aware that any travel warnings or advisories may affect the validity of your travel insurance. Therefore, at the time of booking your tour it is essential you check any restrictions on cover with your insurance provider.

Issue Date – 28/07/09
For possible changes to this dossier please visit www.undiscovered-destinations.com or call +44 (0)191 296 2674

Historical Background

India is a colossus among nations, a country so large that along with its smaller neighbours Pakistan and Bangladesh it is referred to as a subcontinent. Spanning an enormous diversity of landscapes, from the Himalayas in the north to the deserts of Rajasthan and the tropical shores of the south, India enjoys a well deserved place on the traveller’s trail. Its sights are a reflection of its wide and varied history, betraying the influence of the various dynasties and civilisations that have left their footprints here. India is well known as a holiday destination – for hundreds of years Europeans have fought over its riches, colonised it and made homes there, exploring the region as they went along and establishing a strong infrastructure that is today one of the country’s greatest assets. But the country is so vast that there still remain large swathes of it that receive relatively few visitors. For those prepared to abandon the crowds at iconic sites such as the Taj Mahal, or the temples and palaces of Rajasthan, India offers excellent opportunities for discovering tribal villages that see few visitors from one year to the next, or excellent wildlife reserves which are too far away from the main tourist cities to receive much interest. India can be overwhelming – it is often crowded and frequently verges on the chaotic – but it is an experience that is unlike anywhere else in the world. Its history stretches back to the dawn of civilisations, and the country has seen numerous invasions and cultural shifts over its time, making it a superb and enjoyably bewildering place to explore. India can be brash, it can be daunting, and it can at times be intimidating, but it is never dull.

India’s recorded history starts with what is known as the Indus Valley civilisation, by virtue of the fact that its main centres of power were not actually in present day India itself, but on the Indus in neighbouring Pakistan. Around the third millennium BC, the cities of Mohenjo Daro and Harappa spearheaded an urban civilisation of a remarkable uniformity – cities were built according to similar plans, bricks were the same size, and houses were large. These were developed cities, with systems for sanitation and drainage, warehouses, granaries and defensive walls. It is believed that these early cities were primarily based around agriculture and religion, and were active in trade, with archaeologists finding evidence of commerce with the ancient civilisation of Sumer in present day Iraq. The people of the Indus Valley civilisation developed a uniform set of weights, and the preponderance of bronze figurines found in the area suggest that they worshipped some sort of mother-goddess. The civilisation was to last for around a thousand years – the exact cause is not known but recent evidence points towards a change in climate and geology which may have caused a series of floods, in around 1700 BC.

The Indus civilisation was dealt its final death blow with the arrival of Aryan tribes, a semi-nomadic people who arrived from the plains of eastern Europe and Central Asia to displace the remnants of the Indus agricultural society. Sweeping across northern India they conquered the local inhabitants, instigating a rigid class system to segregate themselves from what they considered to be the ‘inferior’ indigenous tribes. Knowledge of this period is gained chiefly from a collection of religious texts known as the Vedas – this era is known as the Vedic age. It is claimed that the great Hindu religious poems / historical works, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, relate to this time. The Aryans adopted the agricultural techniques of the local tribes that they conquered, and over the following thousand years expanded throughout the north and central portions of India, with numerous separate kingdoms being established by the end of the Vedic period at around 600 BC. From one of these kingdoms emerged the philosophy of Buddhism, developed at around the same time as Jainism and together indicating a golden age of thought in India.

Growing prosperity of the newly emergent kingdoms and republics led to conflict, with the state of Magadha emerging as the supreme power in the 6th century BC and establishing dominance over others, only to be replaced by the Nanda dynasty a couple of hundred years later. However during this time invaders from the north west began to make inroads into the subcontinent – the Achaemenids of Persia conquered Afghanistan and Pakistan in the 6th century BC, and were in turn defeated by the armies of Alexander the Great a couple of hundred of years later. With their retreat, and the death of Alexander himself, the Maurya dynasty came to power in 321 BC, driving out the remnants of the Greek armies and taking control over some parts of Afghanistan. The most famous king from this period is the legendary Ashoka, a figure who these days lends his name to all manner of commercial goods in modern India. Ashoka, who came to power in around 269 BC, was initially known as a fairly bloodthirsty and aggressive king before his conversion to Buddhism, which was apparently spurred on by his brutal conquest of the state of Kalinga. Overcome with remorse at what he had done, Ashoka adopted Buddhism and made it the state religion, introducing a number of enlightened social reforms. This did not however preclude his conquest of more territory, and during his reign the Mauryan Empire came to rule most of India, from Assam in the east to Afghanistan in the west, and from Kashmir to Mysore. As is so often the case with a strong ruler though, upon Ashoka’s death in 232 BC the empire began to unravel.

Over the next few centuries India began once again to fall prey to foreign invaders. The first to arrive were the Greeks (again), occupying the Punjab and controlling territory much further afield. Parthians, Scythians and nomads moved into northern India, vying for power with and sometimes being assimilated into the existing kingdoms. This was a time of intense rivalry between individual kingdoms, but also a time of great wealth. Trading links were established with other powerful nations such as Rome and the states of Arabia, and India benefitted from its proximity to the Silk Road. But India was to remain fragmented until the ascension to power of the Gupta dynasty, which became prominent in the 4th century and reunified the northern part of the country, eventually extending their influence down the eastern coast and throughout Gujarat. This was known as a golden age of Hindu culture, with the arts, science and literature flourishing. It was during this time that many of the styles of religious architecture and practice still found in India today emerged. The Gupta empire was powerful, wealthy and enjoyed a long period of peace until the arrival of the next wave of invaders – in the 5th century invading tribes from central Asia known as the Huns first conquered parts of the empire and then led to its demise – after presiding over such a stable and prosperous time, the Gupta empire had dissolved by 550 and India once again split into rival kingdoms.

From the 7th to the 13th centuries India was fragmented, with numerous small kingdoms and states competing with each other for regional power, but never managing to extend their control to the unified empires that had come before them. Although many dynasties such as the Pratiharas of Malwa and the Palas of Bihar and Bengal managed to subjugate other smaller kingdoms, forcing them to pay tribute and become vassal states, their hold on power was often tenuous with the smaller states asserting independence when the opportunity arose. Despite frequent military and political conflict this period is regarded as one of the classical ages of India, a time when cultural identities were established and kingdoms competed with each other in architecture such as temples.

By the start of the 11th century however, a new power was emerging – like many others that had come before it was to rise from the north west. In Ghazni, in Afghanistan, Turkish forces under their leader Mahmud began to make forays into India, looting cities and destroying temples. Under a later ruler, Muhammad of Ghur, north India was invaded in the 12th century, and although Muhammad died shortly afterwards, rule passed to one of his slave generals. This period was known as the Delhi Sultanate, and saw the widescale propagation of Islam throughout India. Previously Islam had existed within India, mainly in the form of trading communities that had arrived from or had links with Arabia, but under the sultanate Islamic rule was imposed over autonomous Hindu states. This fusion of Islamic and Hindu influences left a lasting effect on India, crystallized in architecture, music, the arts and language which can still be seen today. During the 13th century the territory of the sultanate expanded across north and central India, resisting the onslaught of the Mongol armies which laid siege to Delhi. The sultanate was made up of many successive dynasties descended from the original Turkish invaders and under the 14th century Tughluq dynasty it reached its apogee, but overstretched itself and instigated a number of unpopular measures which resulted in widescale revolts. Once more, different parts of the empire began to secede and establish themselves as independent states. When the Central Asian conqueror Timur (or Tamerlane) arrived at 1398, the Delhi sultanate was too weak to resist it – Delhi was sacked and in the wake of the invaders a number of autonomous states began to challenge it for supremacy in the region. Its power was extinguished finally when one of its Afghan possessions enlisted the support of Babur, the ruler of Kabul and the founder of what was to become the Moghul Empire.

Babur defeated the last ruler of the Delhi sultanate, Ibrahim, in 1526. Descended from both Genghis Khan and Timur, Babur swept across northern India, subjugating the various regional states, before dying just four years later. But he had laid the foundations for an empire that was rule the subcontinent for more than 200 years. His successors campaigned against the Rajputs, one of north India’s dominant forces, and under Akbar took Gujarat and Bengal, extending Moghul rule from Kandahar to the Bay of Bengal. Akbar co-opted the defeated Rajputs into the ruling structure, giving them a certain degree of autonomy and awarding them privileged positions – by doing so he ensured the compliance of the Rajput community. Akbar, the grandson of Babur, established a strong administrative base for his empire, and adopted a policy of religious tolerance. Under the Moghuls northern India became powerful and prosperous, increasingly attracting the attention of Europe. However the kingdoms to the south remained a threat – in the 17th century the Maratha leader Shivaji was strong enough to defeat a Moghul army. Under the leader Aurangzeb, things began to unravel. In the Punjab the Sikh community began to become increasingly powerful, and discontent at home and conflict with the Rajputs lead to Aurangzeb adopting increasingly repressive measures, repealing many aspects of religious tolerance which had become engrained in the empire. Nevertheless, he did manage to extend the empire, finally subduing the Marathas and the kingdoms of Bijapur and Golconda. These were however difficult to administer and unruly, and added to this was the fact that Aurangzeb’s policies had destabilised the empire. By the 18th century many local rulers had effectively become independent, and Delhi was invaded and sacked by both Afghan and Persian armies. The days of the empire were numbered.

It would not be long before Britain was to capitalize on this. Since the early 17th century, under the auspices of the British East India Company, British traders had been establishing bases in India, leasing them from the Moghul emperor. A permanent settlement was established at what was to become Calcutta when the company purchased land from a local ruler, and Britain set about quashing competition from other European powers, by now all eager to gain a slice of India’s riches. Fighting off attacks from Indian forces not allied to the emperor, the company was recognised as a legitimate ruler of Bengal in 1765 and given formal control of the territory by an empire no longer able to rule it effectively. This was the start of territorial ambition in India for the British and marked the beginnings of formal rule. As more regional powers began to launch attacks against the company, it defeated them and annexed their territories until by the start of the 19th century almost all Indian states recognised the British as the foremost power in the region. Throughout the first half of the century the Company set about instigating a system of reforms aimed at both the cultural and political life of the region. Traditional practices such sati (the burning of widows) were outlawed and British language and culture was taught in schools, and a policy of westernization crept into the administration.

As might be expected this caused considerable unease, which came to head with what became known as the Indian Mutiny of 1857, when Indian soldiers drafted into the company’s army revolted and seized Delhi, with other local rulers such as the Moghul Emperor supporting them. Caught by surprise, Company officers were eventually able to retake all cities which had turned to the side of the rebels, and relieved the last emperor, Bahadur Shah, of his throne. This was to spell the demise of the Company however – Britain moved swiftly to transfer the administration of what had become its most important overseas possession to the crown.

The next century saw India become increasingly crucial to British foreign policy, and it was developed accordingly, most notably with an excellent system of railways which remain today. Emphasis was placed on education with many Indians becoming civil servants and being instructed in the ways of the west. With a growing and educated indigenous middle class however came an increasing national consciousness, and with that demands for independence. Under renowned political leaders such as Gandhi resistance movements began with the aim of getting Britain to relinquish its control – by the 1920s and 1930s Britain was aware that its hold over India could not be sustained forever but was reluctant to let go quite so soon. Meanwhile, local politics came to be more and more dominated by religion – in an attempt to stave off the inevitable Britain had started to allow limited participation in the political structure for Indians, but this was dominated by the Hindu majority, prompting calls for a separate Muslim state, led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah’s Muslim League. Tensions between Hindu and Moslem began to rise, taking form as riots and acts of terrorism that shook British India.

Throughout the 1930s and 40s political agitation and regular confrontations between political groups led to the realization that independence had to be granted. Keen to maintain the integrity of the Indian state Britain initially looked for ways to avoid its separation along religious lines, but was pre-empted by communal violence between Muslims and Hindus which left thousands dead. In 1947, India was partitioned – India as it is today being the Hindu homelands and Bangladesh (East Pakistan) and Pakistan as Muslim states. The partition of India led to some of the worst violence seen in the post war world, as Muslims in India sought to flee to Pakistan, and vice versa – all in all it is estimated that half a million people lost their lives on the chaos that ensued.

India was finally independent, no longer ruled by a foreign power, but what was left in the wake of the British was a vast collection of previously independent states that the new prime minister Nehru had to try to accommodate within the new nation. Some, like Hyderabad, refused and were taken by force, while others such as Goa still belonged to the Portuguese – it was not until 1961 when Nehru imposed a blockade on the state that Portugal withdrew. India since independence has not always had an easy time – far from it. The many different religions and ethnic groups within its sprawling borders do not sit easily with each other, many nurturing grievances over their incorporation into a land that they do not consider themselves part of. Sikh calls for independence and a Sikh state of Khalistan have rocked the nation in the 1980s and led to the assassination of the then prime minister Indira Gandhi. Kashmir has remained a continual thorn in India’s side, and a never-ending source of conflict with neighbouring Pakistan. And tensions remain between Muslim and Hindu communities which occasionally spill over into violence. But it is a miracle that India exists – a nation of dozens of different religions, languages and histories, largely living peacefully side by side. India has its problems, but it would be unnatural to expect it not to, and by and large it remains a fantastic example of a pluralistic society – something perhaps that Moghuls would have been proud of.

India today is a nation of immense contrasts – a cliché for sure, but there are few places where this is more true. The skyscrapers and cosmopolitan atmosphere of Mumbai sit as direct opposite to the tribal communities in remote forests, or the traditional Buddhist communities of Ladakh, or the fishing villages of Kerala. India offers so much diversity that it is impossible to say that one has ‘done’ India – there is always more to discover, a part which you didn’t even know existed. Glorious though its iconic monuments are, they are only part of the varied cultural landscape of this exciting nation, and to write off the country once you have seen them would be an enormous mistake. One could spend a lifetime visiting India and not see it all, not understand its complexity. India always has been, and remains, one of the most vibrant and exciting countries there is.